#7 WRITING & ACADEMIC WRITING
Academic writing
1- What is academic writing?
Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed
up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding.
It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not
require the use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary.
Each subject discipline will have certain writing conventions,
vocabulary and types of discourse that you will become familiar with over the
course of your degree. However, there are some general characteristics of
academic writing that are relevant across all disciplines.
Characteristics
of academic writing
Academic writing is:
- Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an understanding of the subject.
- Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together related points and material.
- Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supports opinions and arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately.
- Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses, and is clear, concise and balanced.
2- Define your purpose and reader
The first step
to writing academically is to clearly define the purpose of the writing and the
audience.
Most formal
academic writing at university is set by, and written for, an academic tutor or
assessor, and there should be clear criteria against which they will mark your
work.
You will need to
spend some time interpreting your question and deciding how to tackle your
assignment.
If you are writing for yourself – for example making notes to record or
make sense of something – then you can set your own criteria such as clarity,
brevity, and relevance.
Once you have a clear idea of what is required for your assignment, you
can start planning your research and gathering evidence.
3-
Structure your work (see chart*)
4- How to
incorporate evidence
Academic writing must be supported by evidence such as
data, facts, quotations, arguments, statistics, research, and theories.
This evidence will:
· add substance to your own ideas · allow the reader to see what has informed your thinking and how your ideas fit in with, and differ from, others' in your field
· demonstrate your understanding of the general concepts and theories on the topic
· show you have researched widely, and know about specialist/niche areas of interest.
There are several methods that you can use to incorporate
other people's work into your own written work. These are:
·
paraphrasing
·
summarizing
·
synthesizing
·
quoting.
You are likely to use a combination of these throughout
your writing, depending on the purpose that you are trying to achieve.
Be aware that your writing should not just be a patchwork
of other people's ideas made up of quotes, paraphrases and summaries of other
people's work.
You need to show how the information you found has helped
you to develop your own arguments, ideas and opinions.
How to paraphrase others’ work
Paraphrasing is using your own words to express someone else’s ideas. When paraphrasing, make sure that you:
·
identify a relevant theme or point, depending on your
purpose
·
write the point in your own words
·
focus on the meaning of an idea or argument
·
include a reference to the original author.
Common pitfalls include:
· describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own argument, or the point that you are trying to make · using too many of the original author's words, this includes using the same structure
· not distinguishing between the author's point and your own viewpoint
· providing too much detail.
How to summarize others’ work
Summarizing is providing a condensed version of someone else’s key points. When summarizing other people’s work, make sure that you:
·
identify the relevant points of the idea or
argument,depending on your purpose
·
write a shortened version, in your own words, to show
your understanding
·
include an in-text citation and reference to the
original author.
Common pitfalls include:
· describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own argument or point you are trying to make
· providing too much detail such as examples, anecdotes, unnecessary background information rather than being selective and applying the information to the question you are trying to answer.
· describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own argument or point you are trying to make
· providing too much detail such as examples, anecdotes, unnecessary background information rather than being selective and applying the information to the question you are trying to answer.
How to synthesize others’ work
Synthesizing involves combining different information and ideas to develop your own argument.
Synthesizing involves combining different information and ideas to develop your own argument.
When synthesizing others’ work, make sure
that you:
·
Group sources into relevant categories, for example,
authors with similar viewpoints or research that reveals the same results
·
Write about these in your own words. Do not discuss
each author separately; you must identify the overall points you want to make
·
Include references to all the original authors.
Common pitfalls include:
· Not distinguishing clearly which viewpoint/s belong to which author/s · Listing authors separately or one by one, thus not grouping relevant authors or points together
· Giving too much detail about different perspectives rather than being selective of the key features relevant to your line of argument
· Describing the idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own argument or point you are trying to make.
How to quote from others’ work
Quoting is where you copy an author's text word for word,
place quotation marks around the words and add a citation at the end of the
quote. When quoting others’ work, make sure that you:
·
copy the quote exactly from the original, as the
author has written it, taking care to include quotation marks
· include an in-text citation and reference to the
original author.
Common pitfalls include:
· Using too many quotes throughout your work
· Incorporating a quote without explaining the significance to your own argument or point you are trying to make.
5- Use clear
and concise language
Academic writing is concise, clear, formal and active. It
does not need to be complex or use long sentences and obscure vocabulary.
Be concise
In formal academic writing it is important to be concise.
This helps your reader to understand the points you are making.
Here are some tips to help you:
·
Only include one main idea per sentence.
·
Keep your sentences to a reasonable length (generally
not more than 25 words). Long sentences can be difficult to follow and this may
distract from your point.
·
Avoid repetition.
Avoid using redundant words. For example:
·
Use “because” instead of “due to the fact that”.
·
Use “alternatives” instead of “alternative choices”.
·
Use “fundamentals” and not “basic fundamentals”.
·
Use “concisely” instead of “in as few words as
possible”.
Reading your work aloud may help you to identify any
repetition or redundant words.
Use formal language
In academic writing you are expected to use formal
language.:
Avoid using colloquialisms or slang terms such as 'sort
of' or 'basically'. Instead you could use 'somewhat' or 'fundamentally'.
Write words out in full rather than shortening them. For
example, instead of writing “don't” or “isn't” you would be expected to write
“do not” or “is not”
The use of clichés is not appropriate in academic
writing. These are phrases such as “at the end of the day” or “in the nick of
time.” Instead of this you might write finally or at the critical moment.
Use a blend of active and passive verbs
Most verbs can be used in either an active or passive
form. It is usually appropriate to use a mixture of passive and active forms
within academic writing. Always check with your department to see what form of
writing would be most appropriate for your subject area.
The active voice places the
subject of the sentence in charge of the action.
For example: “The research assistant designed the
survey.” Here the research assistant (the subject) designed (the verb) the
survey (the object).
It is usually more direct and easier to read than the
passive voice.
However, sometimes you may want to emphasize what is
happening rather than who is doing it. To do this you can use the passive
voice.
The passive voice places
the subject at the end, or may leave it out completely.
For example: “The survey was designed by the research assistant.”
Here the survey (the object) was designed (the verb) by the research assistant
(the subject).
The passive voice is more formal than the active voice.
It is often used in academic writing as it is seen as more impersonal and
therefore more objective. However, it is not always easy to read and it may add
unnecessary words.
6- Demonstrate
balance in your writing
In your academic work, you should not present something
as a fact that might not be. In academic writing, you can use language that we
often refer to as hedges or boosters to
show how confident you are about an argument or claim you are discussing.
Hedges
When writing, be careful of using words such as
"definitely" or "proves". Ask yourself whether your
statement is a fact or whether there may be some doubt either now or in the
future.
Some useful hedging words and phrases to use in your work
are:
·
“This suggests...”
·
“It is possible that...”
·
“A possible explanation...”
·
“Usually...”
·
“Sometimes...”
·
“Somewhat...”
Read the following two sentences:
1. “Research proves that drinking a large volume of fizzy drinks containing
sugar leads to the development of type II diabetes.”
2. “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing
sugar may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
In sentence 1, the statement is presented as proven fact:
that a high volume of sugary fizzy drinks will definitely lead to type II
diabetes. This leaves no room for doubt or criticism or the fact that some
people may drink large volumes of fizzy drinks and never develop type II
diabetes.
In sentence 2, the writer has used 'hedging language' –
'suggests' and 'may contribute' – to show that while there is evidence to link
sugary drinks and type II diabetes, this may not be true for every person and
may be proven to be incorrect in the future.
Boosters
You might want to express a measure of certainty or
conviction in your writing and this is when 'booster' language can help.
Some useful booster words and phrases to use in your work
are:
·
“Clearly” (only use if you are certain it is clear)
·
“There is a strong correlation...”
·
“Results indicate...”
Take the same sentence as used in the previous section:
1. “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing
sugar may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
2. “Research indicates a clear link between the high consumption of a large
volume of fizzy drinks containing sugar and the development of type II
diabetes.”
In sentence 1, the writer has used the hedging language
'suggested' and 'may contribute', to show that while there is evidence to link
sugary drinks and type II diabetes this may not be true for every person and
may be proven to be incorrect in the future.
In sentence 2, the writer still uses language to allow
for doubt and argument but it is clear that this writer is more convinced by
the research.
Source: The Manchester Academic Phrasebank provides many more examples that you
can use in your written work.7- Choose the correct tense and voice
It is important to use the correct tense and voice in
your written work. You will probably need to use different tenses throughout
depending upon the context.
Only use first person voice in reflective writing
Academic arguments are not usually presented in the first
person (using I), but use more objective language, logic and reasoning to
persuade (rather than emotional or personal perspectives).
This may not apply, however, if you are asked to write a
reflective report based on your own thoughts and experiences.
Use past tense to speak about your method
If you are writing about an experiment you carried out or
a method you used then use the past tense. For example: "Our experiment
showed wide variations in results where the variable was altered even
slightly."
Use present tense to conclude or discuss
established knowledge
If you are writing about established knowledge then use
the present tense. For example: "Diabetes is a condition where the amount
of glucose in the blood is too high because the body cannot use it
properly." (Diabetes UK, 2015)
When you are reporting on the findings or research of
others then you should use the present tense. For example, you might write:
"Smith's research from 2012 finds that regular exercise may contribute to
good cardiovascular health."
When you are writing about your conclusions or what you
have found then use the present tense. For example: "In this case there is
not a large difference between the two diameter values (from Feret's diameter
and calculated equation), which again is probably due to the fact that the
average circularity ratio is on the high end of the scale, 0.88, and therefore
infers near circular pores."
If you are writing about figures that you have presented
in a table or chart then use the present tense. For example: "These
figures show that the number of birds visiting the hide increase every year in
May..."
8- Build
your argument
The most important voice to get across
in your writing is your own; it is how you can show the reader (usually your
tutor) what you are thinking, what your views are and how you have engaged
critically with the topic being discussed. You can do this by building an effective
and persuasive argument for your reader.
Make an argument
Your argument is how you express your
viewpoint and answer the question you have been set, using evidence.
Your argument can help you plan the
structure of your work and guide you to find the evidence you need to support
it.
Make sure that your argument runs
throughout your writing and that everything you include is relevant to it. Try
to sum up your argument in a few words before you start writing and keep
checking that it remains the focus as you research and write your work.
Structure your argument
Guide your reader through your
argument in a logical way. Think about what questions your reader might have.
If you can answer these questions through your argument, it will seem more
convincing.
Present both sides of the debate,
along with your thoughts, linking together the different elements.
You can then work towards a conclusion
by weighing the evidence and showing how certain ideas are accepted and others
are rejected. Your conclusion should make clear where you stand.
Develop your argument
Develop your argument by considering
the evidence and drawing your own conclusion.
If you are considering a range of
opinions, try to group them together under different headings.
Look at the strengths and weaknesses
of the different sets of evidence and present these clearly and in a critical
way. This will help to show you understand what you have read.
Take the evidence into account in
developing your own argument and make clear what your viewpoint is. Perhaps
your argument has strengths and weaknesses as well – it is fine to acknowledge
these.
Include your own voice in your writing
Your voice will emerge through your
discussion, interpretation, and evaluation of the sources.
Here are some ways you can establish your
voice in your writing:
1. Make your unattributed (not referenced) assertion at the start of
paragraphs followed by evidence, findings, arguments from your sources.
Example:“To
date there is no well-established tool to measure divided attention in
children. Current methods used to assess divided attention usually involve a
variation of the CPT with an additional task included e.g. counting or
listening to auditory stimuli (Salthouse, 2003).”
2. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between sources.
Example:“Smith
(2009), however takes a different approach...”
3. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between those
sources and your main assertion.
Example:“Netzer's
argument challenges the term 'renaissance', as it displays repeatedly the use
of classical imagery during the medieval period, therefore illustrating that
canonising a chronological period can be disadvantageous as characteristics of
the term.”
4. Use language to show your strong agreement/disagreement/cautious
agreement with sources.
Example:“Smith's
(2009) findings show a clear...A serious weakness with this argument is...The
research suggests...”
5. Include “so what” summary sentences (evaluative sentences) at the end of
paragraphs.
Example:“This
shows that it is detrimental to strictly categorize chronological periods with
artistic genres, as many art historians suggest different movements were taking
place in separate geographical locations at the same time.”
Using different verbs in your writing
will show your understanding of the sources, for example:
·
“Stevenson (2015) explains that...”
·
“Stevenson (2015) argues...”
·
“Stevenson (2015) describes how...”
You can also use verbs to show your agreement or disagreement with other author's arguments. For example:
·
“Stevenson (2015) correctly
identifies...”
·
“Stevenson (2015) fails to consider...”
I found this entry
interesting in some way because it fostered us as students to become aware of
academic writing and writing in general. Taking into account, that we have
three main stages in ordinary writing and basically the same in academic
writing but with complex issues.
To summarize and
create a mind map where we catch the main ideas, is a fantastic way to focus and
get the gist of what all this fundamental material is meant for. As we read and
get engaged with the topics, the more enthusiastic we become to write according
to the pieces of advice we receive.
Although I was never
challenged to write an academic paper or essay, with the information we are gathering
it feels more familiar each time we dive into this contents. It makes you gain
confidence about the possibility of writing a real piece of work.
It is important to
watch and study the material offered in these videos and web pages because it
will become a great help in order to write properly.
Leticia Flocco
chart: Flocco Leticia / Costa Laura
+
Last visited July 25th 2020.
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